When Prostitution (Sex Work) Is Legalized, What Happens to Crime Rates?

Published May 31, 2023 | Take the Quiz

I. Executive Summary

Proverbially known as “the world’s oldest profession,” prostitution has been legal and regulated in some societies since at least the Ancient Greeks in the 12th – 9th centuries B.C.

Today, there are four predominant legal approaches to regulating sex work: full criminalization (all aspects of sex work are illegal); partial decriminalization (the sale of sex is legal but the purchase of sex is illegal); full decriminalization (all criminal penalties relating to the sex trade are removed); and legalization (sex work is legal and regulated by the state).

Of the 204 countries and territories reviewed for this report, sex work is legal to a varying degree in 86 (including in six whose laws vary within the country), partially decriminalized in 11, fully decriminalized in five and illegal in the remaining 102.

Research into the impact of prostitution on crime rates is difficult in part due to the differing regulatory approaches to sex work worldwide, but also because of the highly transient nature of the industry, societal stigma and other ethical issues such as privacy and informed consent.

Results of research studies into the effect of the legalization or decriminalization of sex work on crime rates have been mixed and at times contradictory.

Of the studies that indicated that legalization or decriminalization of sex work does not necessarily lead to an increase in crime, most found decreases in rape offenses, while other impacts included improvements in the safety of sex workers and a decrease in drug-related crime.

Of the studies that indicated that legalization or decriminalization of sex work can lead to an increase in crime, most focused on increases in organized crime, including human trafficking. A number of studies found that under a partial decriminalization model, the safety of sex workers decreased (three studies) or rape rates increased (one study).

Of the studies with mixed results, one found that prostitution led to a decrease in violent crime in low-income countries but increased violent crime in high-income countries. Another found that conditions improved for local workers under a legalization regime, but negatively affected some foreign workers. A study from Germany found that after legalization, the number of murders of sex workers decreased, but the number of attempted murders increased.

This report offers background information on prostitution policies in the United States and around the world, an outline of the predominant legal approaches to regulating sex work with corresponding case studies and a summary of studies on how legalization or decriminalization of sex work impacts crime rates.

II. Background

III. Prostitution in the United States

Prostitution is illegal across the United States except in 10 rural counties in Nevada. While federal law regulates prostitution in relation to areas such as interstate commerce, military affairs and visa applications, for example, the day-to-day regulation of prostitution is left to the states. In general, prostitution is classed as a misdemeanor offense for both the sellers and buyers of sex, only elevating to a felony grade in some states after two- or three-plus offenses.^[19]Decriminalize Sex Work (DSW), “Prostitution Laws by State,” decriminalizesex.work, accessed February 22, 2023, https://decriminalizesex.work/advocacy/prostitution-laws-by-state/ and ProCon.org, … Continue reading One outlier is Texas. On September 1, 2021, Texas House Bill 1540 entered into force, making Texas the first state in the nation to make paying for sex a felony, even for the first offense.^[20]Texas House Bill 1540 via LegiScan, 2021-2022, https://legiscan.com/TX/text/HB1540/2021^[21]Solicitation of sex is a felony offense in other states but not for the first offense. See for example the Arizona Revised Statutes 13-3214 or the 2022 Florida Statutes Title XLVI Chapter 796. In 2022, bills seeking to decriminalize sex work were unsuccessful in Massachusetts, Missouri, New York and Vermont.^[22]Decriminalizing Sex Work (DSW), “State Bills to Watch in 2022,” decriminalizesex.work, January 1, 2022, https://decriminalizesex.work/state-bills-to-watch-in-2022/

According to HG.org Legal Resources, up to 80,000 people are arrested for prostitution-related crimes in the United States every year; 70% are female sex workers or madams, 20% are male prostitutes or pimps, and 10% are customers.^[23]HG.org Legal Resources, “Prostitution in the United States,” hg.org, accessed April 3, 2023, https://www.hg.org/legal-articles/prostitution-in-the-united-states-30997

In Nevada, prostitution is permitted in licensed houses of prostitution in counties whose population do not exceed 700,000.^[24]Nevada Revised Statutes, 201.354 and Nevada Revised Statutes 244.345 As of February 22, 2023, there were 19 legal brothels spread over seven Nevada counties.^[25]Nevada Brothel Association, “Nevada’s Legal Brothels,” nevadabrothelassociation.com, accessed February 22, 2023, https://nevadabrothelassociation.com/nevadabrothels/ In 2021, an estimated 200 women were working in 21 legal brothels in Nevada.^[26]Nevada Brothel Association, “Brothel History & Background,” nevadabrothelassociation.com, accessed February 22, 2023, https://nevadabrothelassociation.com/history/ These workers must be registered with the local county sheriff, receive regular health checks, pay federal income tax and report their earnings to the IRS; condoms are mandatory for oral and sexual intercourse.^[27]Nevada Brothel Association, “Brothel History & Background,” nevadabrothelassociation.com, accessed February 22, 2023, https://nevadabrothelassociation.com/history/ Brothels must be licensed and registered with the local county sheriff. Even still, according to the Nevada Brothel Association, only 10% of the prostitution that occurs in Nevada is legal; 90% of Nevada’s illegal prostitution takes place in Las Vegas, where prostitution is prohibited.^[28]Nevada Brothel Association, “Brothel History & Background,” nevadabrothelassociation.com, accessed February 22, 2023, https://nevadabrothelassociation.com/history/ Under the Nevada Revised Statutes, any sex worker arrested or cited for prostitution offenses will be charged with a misdemeanor offense. Prior to their release they must be provided with information about, and the opportunity to contact, social service agencies that can provide assistance, including the means to exit prostitution.^[29]NRS 201.353 and NRS 201.354, and  NRS 193.150 - Punishment of Misdemeanors.

In 2016, the FBI collected data on reported rape cases in Elko County, Lyon County and Douglas County, Nevada — three areas that are similarly sized population-wise.^[30]Elko County had an estimated population of 53,915 in 2021 up from 48,818 in 2010; Lyon County had an estimated population of 60,903 in 2021 up from 51,980 in 2010; and Douglas County had an estimated … Continue reading The findings show that in Elko County, where prostitution is legal, the number of reported rapes in 2016 stood at zero. In Lyon County, during the same period, there were 15 reported rape cases, and in Douglas County, there were 11; both of these counties have banned prostitution.^[31]Marisa Jordan Galarza, “Legalizing Prostitution Could Benefit Our Communities,” The Pioneer Optimist, February 25, 2022, … Continue reading

Rhode Island is the only other state in recent years to experience legal or decriminalized prostitution. In 1976, sex worker advocacy group COYOTE brought a lawsuit against the Rhode Island Attorney General and the Chief of Police of the City of Providence, arguing that the state statutes on prostitution were too broad and enforced indiscriminately against women, even though they were written in gender neutral terms. Before the court could make a decision on the merits of the case, state lawmakers rewrote the statutes with a definition of prostitution that covered outdoor street workers only. As a result, indoor prostitution was decriminalized in Rhode Island from 1980 until a law was passed in 2009 re-criminalizing all forms of prostitution. Unlike in Nevada, where legal sex workers and their employers are covered by state law and must abide by certain sex worker-specific regulations, there were no regulations in Rhode Island specific to indoor sex workers.^[32]Bella Robinson and Elena Shih, “The History of Sex Work Law in Rhode Island,” Uprise RI, November 20, 2019, https://upriseri.com/2019-11-20-sex-work/^[33]Elana Gordon, “Prostitution Decriminalized: Rhode Island’s Experiment,” WHYY, August 3, 2017,  https://whyy.org/articles/prostitution-decriminalized-rhode-islands-experiment/

One study has found that during the period of decriminalization in Rhode Island, prostitution arrests decreased and there was a 31% decrease in per capita rape offenses.^[34]Scott Cunningham and Marsha Shah, “Decriminalizing Indoor Prostitution: Implications for Sexual Violence and Public Health,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 20281, July 2014, … Continue reading

IV. Legal Approaches to Regulating Sex Work

Laws relating to prostitution vary widely across the world. The four predominant legal approaches to regulating sex work are full criminalization (illegal), partial decriminalization, full decriminalization and legalization.

As of March 2023, sex work was illegal in 102 of the 204 countries and territories researched for this report. At the time of publication, prostitution was legalized to some extent in 86 countries and territories (including in six whose laws vary within the country), decriminalized in five, and partially decriminalized in 11 where the Nordic or end-demand model of regulation was implemented. See Appendix I for more detailed information.

Full Criminalization Model
The full criminalization model, which applies to the United States with the exception of 10 counties in Nevada, prohibits the selling and buying of sex and other associated activities. Those found guilty of any offenses face criminal penalties. In California, for example, buying, selling and soliciting sex are all misdemeanor crimes punishable by up to six months in jail and/or fines of up to $1,000; although uncommon, a guilty party may be required to sign the sex offenders register.^[35]Robert M. Helfend, “Soliciting Prostitution in California - How to Beat a Prostitution Charge,” robertmhelfend.com, accessed February 28, 2023, … Continue reading^[36]Since January 2023 “loitering with intent to engage in prostitution” has been removed from the California penal code after lawmakers concluded that the rule led to the “disproportionate … Continue reading

Partial Decriminalization Model (aka the Nordic Model or End-Demand Model)
The partial decriminalization model, also known as the Nordic model or the end-demand model, criminalizes the purchasers of sex while decriminalizing the seller. Countries that have adopted this model include Sweden, Norway, France, Northern Ireland, Israel and Canada.^[37]Swedish Gender Equality Agency, “Prostitution Policy in Sweden,” swedishgenderequalityagency.se, accessed February 27, 2023, … Continue reading Under this model, it is only the purchasers of sex who face criminal penalties. In Canada, for example, a person convicted of purchasing sexual services can face between 18 months and 10 years imprisonment depending on the age of the seller, and/or a fine of between $500 and $2,000.^[38]Edmonton Police Service, “Legalities of the Sex Trade Industry,” edmontonpolice.ca, accessed February 28, 2023, … Continue reading

Full Decriminalization Model
The full decriminalization model removes all criminal penalties relating to the sex trade,^[51]Sex Workers and Allies Network, “The Law & Sex Work: Four Legal Approaches to the Sex Sector,” Yale Global Health Justice Partnership, April 2020, … Continue reading and prohibits “law-enforcement from intervening in any prostitution-related activities or transactions, unless other laws apply.”^[52]Maxwell Tani, “Sex Worker Explains the Difference Between Legalizing and Decriminalizing Prostitution,” businessinsider.com, June 10, 2015, … Continue reading This model is in force in Belgium, Denmark, New Zealand, Rwanda and Spain.

Legalization Model
Under the legalization framework, prostitution is legal and regulated by the state.^[65]Sex Workers and Allies Network, “The Law & Sex Work: Four Legal Approaches to the Sex Sector,” Yale Global Health Justice Partnership, April 2020, … Continue reading Any sex work undertaken outside of these regulations is prohibited and any offenses are subject to criminal penalties.^[66]Maxwell Tani, “Sex Worker Explains the Difference Between Legalizing and Decriminalizing Prostitution,” businessinsider.com, June 10, 2015, … Continue reading This model is in force in Nevada, the Netherlands and Greece, among others. In Nevada, for example, it is unlawful for anyone to engage in prostitution or solicitation for prostitution outside of a licensed house of prostitution. Anyone found to have violated this law can be convicted of a misdemeanor offense and be punished by a maximum of six months imprisonment and/or a fine of up to $1,000.^[67]NRS 201.353 and NRS 201.354, and  NRS 193.150 - Punishment of Misdemeanors

V. Regulation of Prostitution and the Effect on Crime Rates

Research into prostitution and the sex industry has many challenges, not least the lack of precise and reliable data. Social stigma, the high level of mobility of sex workers and the illegality of the profession in some areas are obstacles to gathering accurate data.^[86]Hendrik Wagenaar, “Why Prostitution Policy (Usually) Fails and What to Do About It?” Social Sciences, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2017, https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/6/2/43 The many and varied legal systems and prostitution policies worldwide hinder comparative research at the macro level. In addition to these challenges, and despite a confluence of studies on the subject of sex work, there is a lack of research focusing specifically on the impact of the legalization of sex work on crime rates. From the studies we have found, the types of crimes included in the studies generally include violence against sex workers, drug offenses, rapes and sexual assaults, and organized crime such as human trafficking.

Physical or sexual violence against sex workers is common. One systematic review by researchers based at the University of British Columbia, the BC Center for Excellence in HIV/AIDS (Canada) and the World Health Organization looked at 28 global studies and found that between 45% and 75% of sex workers had experienced some form of workplace violence in their lifetime.^[87]Kathleen N. Deering, et al., "A Systematic Review of the Correlates of Violence Against Sex Workers," American Journal of Public Health, Volume 104, Issue 5, 2014, … Continue reading A 2021 report out of the University of Sheffield (UK) using data from the UK’s National Ugly Mugs (NUM) crime incident reports found that, out of 2,056 reports submitted over a four year period, 46.1% contained reports of violence against sex workers. Other crimes against sex workers included stalking, harassment, robbery and condom removal.^[88]Laura Connelly, et al., “Violent and Non-Violent Crimes Against Sex Workers: The Influence of the Sex Market on Reporting Practices in the United Kingdom,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36 … Continue reading In the United States, 20% of reports of sexual assault taken in emergency rooms by police were filed by sex workers.^[89]Maryland Coalition Against Sexual Assault, “Sexual Violence Against Sex Workers,” mcasa.org, last edited April 2022, … Continue reading

While the current scope of prostitution-related crime in other areas (such as drug use and theft) is hard to determine due to a lack of quantifiable data, governmental guidance, news articles and anecdotal reports do give an idea as to the types of related crimes, if not a defined amount.

The U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office) notes that alongside potential physical violence against sex workers and customers, "street prostitution and street drug markets are often closely linked, supporting and reinforcing one another."^[90]Michael S. Scott and Kelly Dedel, “Street Prostitution,” Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, No. 2, November 2006, https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-p011-pub.pdf This is mirrored in guidance from the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), the agency that prosecutes criminal cases in England and Wales, which notes the relationship between drug markets and street prostitution before going on to recognize that an increase in human trafficking for sexual exploitation in the UK is “fuelling the market for prostitution,... and is often linked with other organised criminal activity such as immigration crime, violence, drug abuse and money laundering."^[91]Crown Prosecution Service, “Prostitution and Exploitation of Prostitution,” cps.gov.uk, accessed April 3, 2023, https://www.cps.gov.uk/publication/prostitution-and-exploitation-prostitution

The majority of relevant news reports appear to cover violent assaults and robberies committed against sex workers. There are some that detail incidents where sex workers (or alleged sex workers) have been accused or convicted of thefts,^[92]See for example, Mark Naylor, “Sex Worker Who Lured Men to Knife-Wielding Boyfriend So He Could Rob Them Is Jailed,” Mirror, January 12, 2022, … Continue reading blackmail^[93]Tom Seaward, “Jail for Wallingford Sex Worker Who Blackmailed Client Out of £62,000,” Oxford Mail, February 11, 2023, … Continue reading or drug-related crimes,^[94]Kyler Alvord, “Sex Worker Gets 30 Years for Fatally Drugging 4 Clients, Including Star Chef, ‘For a Few Quick Dollars’,” People, April 27, 2022, … Continue reading however these are few in comparison.

Studies on the Regulation of Prostitution and the Effect Crime Rates

Despite the challenges of conducting research into prostitution and the sex work industry, and while the numbers are imprecise and the studies don’t necessarily indicate a strong causal relationship between prostitution policy and crime, the studies below do give an idea of the potential impact of prostitution policy on crime rates.

Seven of the studies detailed below indicate that legalization or decriminalization of sex work does not necessarily lead to an increase in crime. Four of these studies showed a decrease in the rape rates in three different countries under differing levels of deregulation: decriminalization in Rhode Island and legalization in Nevada, the Netherlands and Taiwan. Other impacts found included improvements in the safety of sex workers and a decrease in drug-related crime.

Conversely, eight of the studies detailed below indicate that legalization or decriminalization of sex work (in full or in part) can lead to an increase in crime, with a number of these studies focusing on increases in human trafficking, organized crime, or the safety of sex workers.

Another eight studies detailed below show mixed results or no changes in the crime rates after implementation of legalization or decriminalization policies. For example, one study from Germany shows that while murders of sex workers decreased after legalization of prostitution, the number of attempted murders increased. In another study from Canada, the amount of violence experienced by sex workers in Vancouver remained unchanged after the implementation of the end-demand partial-decriminalization model by the Vancouver Police Department.

Seven Studies Showing that Legalization or Decriminalization of Sex Work Would Not Increase Crime

1. A working paper for the National Bureau of Economic Research studying the impact of the decriminalization of indoor prostitution in Rhode Island between 1980 and 2009 found that during the period of decriminalization, prostitution arrests decreased and there was a 31% decrease in per capita rape offenses.^[95]Scott Cunningham and Marsha Shah, “Decriminalizing Indoor Prostitution: Implications for Sexual Violence and Public Health,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 20281, July 2014, … Continue reading
2. A study published by the Independent Institute concluded that if prostitution were legalized in the United States, the overall rape rate would decrease by approximately 25,000 rapes per year, or 25%.^[96]Kirby B. Cundiff, “Prostitution and Sex Crimes,” The Independent Institute, April 8, 2004, https://www.independent.org/pdf/working_papers/50_prostitution.pdf
3. A peer-reviewed study by academic researchers in the Netherlands found that the opening of legal street prostitution zones in participating Dutch cities led to a 30 - 40% decrease in reported sexual abuse and rape within the first two years of opening. When a legal street prostitution zone with additional licensing was opened, significant reductions in drug-related crime and long-term effects on sexual assaults were also found.^[97]Paul Bisschop et al., “Street Prostitution Zones and Crime,” IZA Discussion Paper Number 9038, May 18, 2015, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2606891
4. A 2019 comparative study of the sex industries in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, where prostitution is illegal, partly legal (prostitution is legal but organizing prostitution is illegal) and legal since 2011 respectively, found that there were no significant differences in the rate of reported rape cases per 100,000 people between China and Hong Kong. In Taiwan, however, the number of reported rape cases decreased significantly post-legalization of prostitution.^[98]Sirong Chen, “Legalizing Sex Industries or Not? A Comparison of the Growth Rate of Sexual Crimes and STDs Among China Mainland, Hong Kong and Taiwan,” jscholarship.library.jhu.edu, May 2019, … Continue reading
5. A peer-reviewed study published in the Journal of Interpersonal Violence looking into the risks of interpersonal violence against prostitutes, violence against community order and sexually transmitted diseases as violence in Nevada, found that legalization of prostitution “brings a level of public scrutiny, official regulation, and bureaucratization to brothels that decreases the risk of these 3 types of systematic violence.”^[99]Barbara G. Brents and Kathryn Hausbeck, “Violence and Legalized Brothel Prostitution in Nevada: Examining Safety, Risk, and Prostitution Policy,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Volume 20, … Continue reading
6. The process to decriminalize prostitution in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, started in 1979 with the adoption of the Prostitution Act 1979 that decriminalized soliciting alongside the offense of “being a reputed prostitute on premises habitually used for prostitution;” and culminated with the Disorderly Houses Amendment Act 1995 that decriminalized brothel prostitution.^[100]Coalition Against Trafficking in Women Australia (CATWA), “What are the Prostitution Laws in Australia?” catwa.org, accessed March 1, 2023, … Continue reading A 2012 study published by the University of New South Wales concluded that these laws “have improved human rights; removed police corruption; netted savings for the criminal justice system; and enhanced the surveillance, health promotion, and safety of the NSW sex industry.”  They also found no evidence of recent trafficking of female sex workers in Sydney's brothels.^[101]Basil Donovan and Christine Harcourt, et al., “The Sex Industry in New South Wales: A Report to the NSW Ministry of Health,” Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity in Science, UNSW, 2012, … Continue reading
7. A peer-reviewed study from New Zealand noted that decriminalized sex workers are “safer and have more rights than sex workers did pre-decriminalisation and compared to those working elsewhere under criminalising regimes.”^[102]Lynzi Armstrong, “‘I Can Lead the Life That I Want to Lead’: Social Harm, Human Needs and the Decriminalisation of Sex Work in Aotearoa / New Zealand,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy, … Continue reading

Eight Studies Showing that Legalization or Decriminalization (in part or in full) of Sex Work Increases or Has a Negative Effect on Crime Rates

1. Collaborative peer-reviewed research from the Institute of Developing Economies (Japan), London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (UK) and the University of Grenoble Alpes (France) found that registered sex workers in Senegal are more likely to experience violence from clients and police officers compared to unregistered sex workers working illegally.^[103]Seiro Ito, et al., “The Effect of Sex Work Regulation on Health and Well-Being of Sex Workers: Evidence from Senegal,” Health Economics, Volume 27, Issue 11, November 2018,  … Continue reading Prostitution is legal in Senegal, where in order to work legally as a sex worker you must be registered with a health facility, attend compulsory health checks and carry a registration card, the details of which are held by the police. Despite being legal, prostitution is morally condemned within Senegalese society, leading to a reluctance of sex workers to register. It is estimated that only 20% of sex workers in Senegal are registered and working legally.
2. Collaborative peer-reviewed research out of the German Institute for Economic Research, the University of Heidelberg (Germany) and the London School of Economics (UK) analyzing data from 150 countries led to the conclusion that,^[104]Seo-Young Cho, et al., “Does Legalized Prostitution Increase Human Trafficking?,” World Development, Volume 41, 2012, … Continue reading “Where prostitution is legal, there is more human trafficking than elsewhere.”^[105]Cordula Meyer, et al., “How Legalizing Prostitution Has Failed,” Der Spiegel, May 30, 2013, … Continue reading
3. Peer-reviewed research out of Moritz College of Law at Ohio State University using a longitudinal cross-national dataset from the European Union found that “legalized prostitution increases the rate of human trafficking.”^[106]Rachel Tallmadge and Robert Jeffrey Gitter, “The Determinants of Human Trafficking in the European Union,” Journal of Human Trafficking, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2018, … Continue reading
4. A report published by the European Parliament concluded that “prostitution models that criminalise customers (thus creating criminal sanctions) seem to have the potential to reduce sex trafficking.”^[107]Andrea Di Nicola, “The Differing EU Member States’ Regulations on Prostitution and Their Cross-Border Implications on Women’s Rights,” European Parliament, September 2021, … Continue reading
5. A study out of Comillas Pontifical University in Madrid, Spain, looking into the effect of the implementation of the Nordic or end-demand model of sex work regulation on rape rates, found that "fines for sex purchase increase rape." Using data from Sweden, the study estimates that "criminalizing the purchase of prostitution [in Sweden] increased reported rape by 47% between 1999 and 2014."^[108]Riccardo Ciacci, "Banning the Purchase of Prostitution Increases Rape: Evidence from Sweden," MPRA Paper No. 100393, May 1, 2020, mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/100393/1/MPRA_paper_100393.pdf
6. In 2016, France partially decriminalized prostitution under Law Number 2016-444, by which selling sex was decriminalized but the buying of sex was not. A study published by Médecins du Monde reflecting on the impact of this law found that the introduction of the Nordic or end-demand model has had a detrimental effect on sex worker health, safety and overall living conditions and cases of all kinds of violence — insults, physical violence, sexual violence, theft and armed robbery — have increased.^[109]Helene Le Bail, et al., “What Do Sex Workers Think About the French Prostitution Act? A Study on the Impact of the Law from 13 April 2016 Against the ‘Prostitution System’ in France,” … Continue reading Another article noted that between June and December 2019, 10 sex workers were murdered in France, double the “already startling rate of one sex worker death per month that France had in 2014, two years before the law was introduced.”^[110]Polina Bachlakova, “Long Read: How the Nordic Model in France Changed Everything for Sex Workers,” openDemocracy, October 16, 2020, … Continue reading
7. Article 64A of the Sexual Offences Order (Northern Ireland) 2008 made it an offense to purchase sexual services in Northern Ireland; the selling of sexual services remained legal. A review of this order by Queen’s University Belfast on behalf of the Department of Justice found that since implementation of the Nordic or end-demand model, sex workers have been exposed to higher rates of anti-social and nuisance behavior, and there have been increases in reported assaults, sexual assaults and threatening behaviors.^[111]Department of Justice, “Assessment of Review of Operation of Article 64A of the Sexual Offences Order (Northern Ireland) 2008: Offence of Purchasing Sexual Services,” justice-ni-gov.uk, September … Continue reading
8. A peer-reviewed study published in the Irish Journal of Sociology found that after the implementation of the Nordic or end-demand model of sex work regulation in Ireland in 2017, “crimes (including violent offences) against sex workers increased following the introduction of the new law and continued with low levels of reporting of said crimes to the police.”^[112]Rosie Campbell, et al., “Not Collateral Damage: Trends in Violence and Hate Crimes Experienced by Sex Workers in the Republic of Ireland,” Irish Journal of Sociology, Volume 28, Issue 3, … Continue reading

Eight Studies Showing Mixed Results or No Change in Crime Rates Post-Legalization or Decriminalization

1. A peer-review study published in Dignity: A Journal of Analysis of Exploitation and Violence that collected and evaluated data on murders and attempted murders in the German sex trade from 1920 - 2017 found that between 2002 and 2017, after legalization of pimping and brothels, while the number of murders decreased, the number of attempted murders of prostituted persons increased, leading to the study’s authors to conclude that “legalization of prostitution does not eliminate the murders or attempted murders of women in the sex trade in Germany.”^[113]Manuela Schon and Anna Hoheide, “Murders in the German Sex Trade: 1920 to 2017,” Dignity: A Journal of Analysis of Exploitation and Violence, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2021, … Continue reading
2. Prostitution has been legal but unregulated in Spain since 1995.^[114]Lena Reinschmidt, “Regulatory Approaches Towards Prostitution in European Comparison,” Observatory for Sociopolitical Developments in Europe, June 2016, … Continue reading A peer-review study of the closure of two macro-brothels in the town of Castelldefels near Barcelona found that the closures coincided with a decrease in violent crime in the areas where the brothels were located but an increase in other crime (such as drugs and traffic violations); however, this increase could be associated with an increased police presence in the area.^[115]Carles Soto and Lucia Summers, “Macro-Brothels As Crime Generators: Impact of Closure, Displacement, and Diffusion of Benefits,” poster presentation at ECCA 2017, San Salvador, … Continue reading
3. Norway criminalized the purchase of sex, pimping and pandering in January 2009. The selling of sexual services remained legal. In an evaluation commissioned by the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security, the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences concluded that while “prostitutes in the street market report to have a weaker bargaining position and more safety concerns now than before the law was introduced [and] in the indoor market prostitutes experience concern for ‘outdoor calls’ … we found no clear evidence of increased violence against women in the street market after the introduction of the law. The police have no indications of increased violence as a result of the prohibition against purchasing sexual services.”^[116]Steiner Strom, et al., “Normative Findings from the Evaluation Report of the Norwegian Sex Buying Act,” The Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences, January - June 2014, … Continue reading Conversely, a report commissioned by the municipality of Oslo with support of the Ministry of Justice and Public Safety by Ulla Bjorndhal of Pro Sentret, an information and advice center, found that “harassment and discrimination of women in prostitution from society at large has increased.” The study also found an increase in the number of sex workers reporting instances of violence, including rapes, attempted rapes and stabbings, although this could not definitively be linked to the introduction of the Norwegian sex buying restrictions.^[117]Ulla Bjorndahl, “Dangerous Liaisons: A Report on the Violence Women in Prostitution in Oslo Are Exposed To,” Pro Sentret, 2012, … Continue reading
4. In 2013, the police department in Vancouver, Canada, adopted an end-demand or Nordic model-style program where sellers of sex were not prosecuted but buyers and third parties were. A peer-reviewed study looking at the impact of this program on the amount of violence experienced by female sex workers in the police department’s jurisdiction, found that there was no statistically significant change in rates of workplace violence after the implementation of the end-demand model.^[118]Amy Prangnell, et al., “Workplace Violence Among Female Sex Workers Who Use Drugs in Vancouver, Canada: Does Client-Targeted Policing Increase Safety?” Journal of Public Health Policy, Volume 39, … Continue reading
5. A research paper out of the Mercatus Center at George Mason University found that legalization of prostitution led to a decrease in violent crime in low-income countries but an increase in violent crime in high-income countries.^[119]Devin Bowen, “The Impact of Legalizing Prostitution on Violent Crime,” Mercatus Center at George Mason University, May 2013, https://asp.mercatus.org/system/files/Bowen_MGPE.pdf
6. A study by researchers at the Hotline for Migrant Workers in Tel Aviv, Israel, found that legalization of prostitution in the Netherlands improved conditions for Dutch and EU citizens but negatively affected other foreign workers, leading to an increase in illegal prostitution and creating a situation in which organized crime and human trafficking flourished.^[120]Nomi Levenkron, et al.,  “The Legalization of Prostitution: Myth and Reality - A Comparative Study of Four Countries,” Hotline for Migrant Workers, 2007, … Continue reading
7. A research brief published by the Cato Institute found that the opening of indoor prostitution establishments in New York City reduced sex crimes in the precinct where they are located but had no effect on other crimes such as drug use or burglaries.^[121]Ricardo Ciacci and Maria Micaela Sviatschi, The Effect of Indoor Prostitution on Sex Crimes: The Evidence from New York City," Cato Institute, February 2017, … Continue reading
8. A peer-review study by researchers out of Fudan University, China, found that changes in a country's prostitution policies had no effect on non-sexual crimes (such as homicide or burglary) but did have an effect on sexual crimes, such as rape. By legalizing or decriminalizing commercial sex, a country can see "a decline in their rape rate by approximately three cases per 100,000 population, relative to countries that experience no legal changes in prostitution. In contrast, countries that prohibit prostitution experience an increase in their rape rate by approximately 11 cases per 100,000 population, relative to countries that experience no legal changes in prostitution."^[122]Huasheng Gao and Vanya S. Petrova, "Do Prostitution Laws Turn a John into a Rapist? Evidence from Europe," Journal of Law and Economics, forthcoming, March 2022, … Continue reading

VI. Conclusion

Due to a lack of precise and reliable data and a myriad of legal systems controlling prostitution policies around the world, researching the impact of the legalization of sex work on crime rates is difficult. While there have been some attempts to prove a positive or negative effect on crime rates, there is still not enough data available to draw a strong conclusion.

As the above analysis shows, there are few studies that actually focus on sex work legalization and crime rates and of those that do, 30.4% indicate that some form of legalization of sex work can lead to a decrease in crime rates, and 34.8% show the opposite. The remaining 34.8% of studies show neutral or mixed results.

Of the 204 countries and territories reviewed for this report, sex work is legal, partially decriminalized or fully decriminalized in 102 of them, and illegal in the other 102 countries. That's at least 102 different regulatory systems, making comparative research particularly hard. As a result, small scale studies - such as those undertaken in the Netherlands^[123]See, for example, Ronald Weitzer, “Legal Prostitution: The German and Dutch Models,” in Ernesto Ugo Savona, et al.(eds.), Dual Markets: Comparative Approaches to Regulation, Springer … Continue reading - that focus on a particular country-, state- or city-wide policy and their impacts on crime levels would be particularly useful in adding to our understanding of best practices in sex work regulation and the impact of the legalization of sex work on crime rates.

Appendix I: Prostitution Policies Around the World, as of March 2023

Laws relating to prostitution vary widely across the world. As noted above, in March 2023, sex work was illegal in 102 of the 204 countries and territories researched for this report. At the time of publication, prostitution was legalized to some extent in 86 countries and territories (including in six whose laws vary within the country), decriminalized in five, and partially decriminalized in 11 where the Nordic or end-demand model of regulation was implemented. The following information gives an idea of the types of prostitution policies around the world by region.

Appendix II: Public Opinion on Prostitution and Sex Work

Legalization and full decriminalization of sex work are similar but do differ, as outlined above. As legalization involves state oversight and restrictions on certain acts that can lead to criminal penalties, those who support some form of legalization or full decriminalization (including sex workers, advocacy groups and politicians) generally support full decriminalization over legalization.

The contemporary movement in support of the decriminalization of sex work has its roots in the 1970s with the founding of advocacy groups like COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics).^[202]Anna North, “The Movement to Decriminalize Sex Work, Explained,” Vox, August 2, 2019, https://www.vox.com/2019/8/2/20692327/sex-work-decriminalization-prostitution-new-york-dc Made up of sex workers and their supporters, groups like COYOTE fight against laws that target sex workers, advocate for sex worker rights and give a voice to an often marginalized group.^[203]Heather Lee Miller, “COYOTE,” Britannica, accessed February 28, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/COYOTE-organization Slow to gain support in the United States and elsewhere, momentum shifted at the start of the 21st century when New Zealand became the first country to decriminalize prostitution and organizations such as Amnesty International,^[204]Amnesty International, “Amnesty International Policy on State Obligations to Respect, Protect and Fulfil the Human Rights of Sex Workers: POL 30/4062/2016,” amnesty.org, May 26, 2016, … Continue reading, Human Rights Watch,^[205]Human Rights Watch, “Why Sex Work Should Be Decriminalized: Questions and Answers,” hrw.og, August 7, 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/07/why-sex-work-should-be-decriminalized ACLUThe contemporary movement in support of the decriminalization of sex work has its roots in the 1970s with the founding of advocacy groups like COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics).^[206]Anna North, “The Movement to Decriminalize Sex Work, Explained,” Vox, August 2, 2019, https://www.vox.com/2019/8/2/20692327/sex-work-decriminalization-prostitution-new-york-dc Made up of sex workers and their supporters, groups like COYOTE fight against laws that target sex workers, advocate for sex worker rights and give a voice to an often marginalized group.^[207]Heather Lee Miller, “COYOTE,” Britannica, accessed February 28, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/COYOTE-organization Slow to gain support in the United States and elsewhere, momentum shifted at the start of the 21st century when New Zealand became the first country to decriminalize prostitution and organizations such as Amnesty International,^[208]Amnesty International, “Amnesty International Policy on State Obligations to Respect, Protect and Fulfil the Human Rights of Sex Workers: POL 30/4062/2016,” amnesty.org, May 26, 2016, … Continue reading, Human Rights Watch,^[209]Human Rights Watch, “Why Sex Work Should Be Decriminalized: Questions and Answers,” hrw.og, August 7, 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/08/07/why-sex-work-should-be-decriminalized ACLU^[210]American Civil Liberties Union, “It’s Time to Decrminalize Sex Work,” aclu.org, last updated January 21, 2022, https://www.aclu.org/news/topic/its-time-to-decriminalize-sex-work and the Open Society Foundations,^[211]Open Society Foundations, “Ten Reasons to Decriminalize Sex Work,” opensocietyfoundations.org, April 2015, https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/ten-reasons-decriminalize-sex-work, soon followed with policy statements or articles supporting decriminalization. When BuzzFeed News reached out to candidates during the 2020 presidential election cycle, only former New York City mayor Bill de Blasio said prostitution should remain illegal. Senators Cory Booker and Kamala Harris, along with Representative Tulsi Gabbard and former Senator Mike Gravel, all Democrats, said they supported the decriminalization of sex work.^[212]Dominic Holden and Otilla Steadman, “We Asked All the 2020 Candidates If The US Should Stop Arresting Sex Workers. Only Four Said Yes,” BuzzFeed News, May 30, 2019, … Continue reading Former Republican party member turned Democratic New York State Senator for the 18th District, Julia Salazar, also supports decriminalization of sex work.^[213]Callie Beusman, “Julia Salazar’s Win Is a Huge Victory for Sex Workers,” The Cut, September 19, 2018, https://www.thecut.com/2018/09/julia-salazar-sex-workers-rights.html

Retired Anaheim PD captain, Joe Vargas, disagrees, noting that prostitution “is deplorable and in many ways degrades and robs the participants of fragile parts of their humanity. … Legalization would put lipstick on modern-day slavery and call it another step in the liberation of women. … Sex for money is illegal not just because it’s immoral, but because it’s just plain bad for women at every level.”^[214]Joe Vargas, “Vargas: Legalizing Prostitution Would Do Nothing to Curb Abuse, Degradation of Women,” behindthebadge.com, February 26, 2017, … Continue reading Attorney Dianne Post agrees, stating that, “acceptance of prostitution justifies violence against women. … [States] cannot uphold human rights by supporting a regime to sell women as commodities in the market place.”^[215]Dianne Post, “Legalization of Prostitution Is a Violation of Human Rights,” National Lawyers Guild Review, Volume 68, Number 2, Summer 2011, … Continue reading

Some critics of legalization and full decriminalization do support partial discrimination where the purchasers of sex are criminalized but not the sellers. Rachel Moran, founder of Space International and former prostituted woman, says, “I cringe when I hear the words ‘sex work.’ Selling my body wasn’t a livelihood. There was no resemblance to ordinary employment in the ritual degradation of strangers using my body to satiate their urges. … The effort to decriminalize the sex trade worldwide is not a progressive movement. Implementing this policy will simply calcify into law men’s entitlement to buy sex, while decriminalizing pimping will protect no one but the pimps. … There is an alternative: an approach, which originated in Sweden, that has now been adopted by other countries such as Norway, Iceland and Canada and is sometimes called the ‘Nordic model.’”^[216]Rachel Moran, “Buying Sex Should Not Be Legal,” New York Times, August 28, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/29/opinion/buying-sex-should-not-be-legal.html

Jimmy Carter, 39th President of the United States, also supports partial decriminalization of sex work, noting in an opinion piece for the Washington Post that he agrees with “groups that say that those who sell sex acts should not be arrested or prosecuted, but I cannot support proposals to decriminalize buyers and pimps. … I cannot accept a policy prescription that codifies such a pernicious form of violence against women. Normalizing the act of buying sex also debases men by assuming that they are entitled to access women’s bodies for sexual gratification. If paying for sex is normalized, then every young boy will learn that women and girls are commodities to be bought and sold.”^[217]Jimmy Carter, “To Curb Prostitution, Punish Those Who Buy Sex Rather Than Those Who Sell It.,” Washington Post, May 31, 2016, … Continue reading

In 2021, Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus Vance Jr., adopted a “decline-to-prosecute” policy in favor of people selling sexual services while still prosecuting buyers of sex.^[218]Coalition Against Trafficking In Women (CATW), “CATW Applauds Manhattan DA’s Office New Policy Decriminalizing People in Prostitution,” catwinternational.org, April 22, 2021, … Continue reading Democratic New York State Senator Liz Krueger also supports partial decriminalization of sex work through the introduction of the Sex Trade Survivors Justice and Equality Act 2022; an act that would end the arrest and incarceration of sex workers in New York State but still criminalize pimps, brothel owners, buyers of sex and traffickers.^[219]Liz Kruger, “Sen. Krueger Holds Press Conference for the Sex Trade Survivors Justice and Equality Act,” lizkrueger.com, May 10, 2022, … Continue reading

However some sex workers have spoken out against partial decriminalization. One worker notes that by criminalizing those who buy sex, sex workers are at risk of having fewer clients and are therefore less able to turn away troublesome buyers, including those who have a reputation for violence.^[220]Molly Smith, “In This Prostitution Debate, Listen to Sex Workers not Hollywood Stars,” The Guardian, August 3, 2015, … Continue reading Another worker notes that while she hasn’t seen a decrease in demand, she has struggled to screen clients as they are no longer willing to share their true identities for fear of being caught and prosecuted.^[221]Amelia Gentleman, “Sex Worker and Activist Laura Lee: ‘It’s Now Far More Difficult to Stay Safe,’” The Guardian, February 5, 2016, … Continue reading

A December 2022 poll by YouGov America found that 49.1% of respondents thought working as a prostitute should not be classed as a crime, with 33.9% disagreeing and saying that it should be classified as a crime; 17.1% of respondents didn’t know.^[222]YouGov America, “Should Working as a Prostitute Be Legal?” today.yougov.com, December 28, 2022, https://today.yougov.com/topics/politics/trackers/should-working-as-a-prostitute-be-legal

Similarly, 47.8% of respondents thought the buying of sexual services should not be classified as a crime with 33.9% saying that it should be classified as a crime; 18.3% of respondents didn’t know.^[223]YouGov America, “Should Buying a Prostitute’s Services Be Legal?” today.yougov.com, December 28, 2022, … Continue reading

A 2021 poll by Public Policy Polling found that “42% of registered voters are in favor of decriminalizing prostitution, while 36% think prostitution should remain a crime, and 22% remain undecided.”^[224]Decriminalize Sex Work, “At Least 40% of US Voters Want Prostitution Decriminalized,” PR News Wire, October 14, 2021, … Continue reading During the same poll, 60% of registered voters opposed the introduction of the partial decriminalization model where only buyers of sex are criminalized, with 7% in support of this model and 33% unsure.^[225]Decriminalize Sex Work, “At Least 40% of US Voters Want Prostitution Decriminalized,” PR News Wire, October 14, 2021, … Continue reading